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The American Civil War

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Map of Civil War in America colour

Above: Map of Civil War in America (1861 – 1865)

The American Civil War (1861-1865) was a separatist conflict between the United States Federal government (the “Union”) and eleven Southern slave states that declared their secession and formed the Confederate States of America, led by President Jefferson Davis. The Union, led by President Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, opposed the expansion of slavery and rejected any right of secession. Fighting commenced on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a Federal military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina.

Casualties in Civil War 1861 - 1865

Above: Massive Death of soldiers during the American Civil War

[1]During the first year, the Union asserted control of the border states and established a naval blockade as both sides raised large armies. In 1862 large, bloody battles began, causing massive casualties as a result of new weapons and old battlefield tactics. In September 1862, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation[2] made the freeing of the slaves a war goal, despite opposition from northern Copperheads who tolerated secession and slavery. Emancipation ensured that Britain and France would not intervene to help the Confederacy. In addition, the goal also allowed the Union to recruit African-Americans for reinforcements, a resource that the Confederacy did not dare exploit until it was too late. War Democrats reluctantly accepted emancipation as part of total war needed to save the Union. In the East, Robert Edward Lee rolled up a series of Confederate victories over the Army of the Potomac, but his best general, Thomas Jonathan “Stonewall” Jackson, was killed at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863.[3] Lee’s invasion of the North was repulsed at the Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania in July 1863;[4] he barely managed to escape back to Virginia. In the West, the Union Navy captured the port of New Orleans in 1862, and Ulysses S. Grant seized control of the Mississippi River by capturing Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863,[5] thus splitting the Confederacy.

more casualties during Civil War in America

Above: soldiers died in battle of Chancellorsville (1863)

By 1864, long-term Union advantages in geography, manpower, industry, finance, political organization and transportation were overwhelming the Confederacy. Grant fought a number of bloody battles with Lee in Virginia in the summer of 1864. Lee won most of the battles in a tactical sense but on the whole lost strategically, as he could not replace his casualties and was forced to retreat into trenches around his capital, Richmond, Virginia. Meanwhile, William Tecumseh Sherman captured Atlanta, Georgia.[6] Sherman’s March to the Sea destroyed a hundred-mile-wide swath of Georgia. In 1865, the Confederacy collapsed after Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House; all slaves in the Confederacy were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves outside Confederate control were freed by state action or by the Thirteenth Amendment.

Slaves in South Carolina plantation (1860)

Above: Picture of slaves in South Carolina (1860)

The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction. The war produced about 970,000 casualties (3% of the population), including approximately 620,000 soldier deaths-two-thirds by disease.[7] The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering controversy even today. The main results of the war were the restoration and strengthening of the Union, and the end of slavery in the United States.

Below: Another map of American civil war (1861 – 1865)

Map of Civil War in America

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR

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Map of American Revolutionary War

Above: Map of American Revolutionary War (click map to enlarge)

When war broke out in 1775 between America and Britain it seemed that the latter would come out a sure winner. Its well organized army and navy were matchless. There were veterans from the French and Indian wars at the lead. But America had only a motley group of untrained inexperienced conscripts. The small American navy could hardly face up to the royal British fleet consisting of nearly thousand or more ships.

President George Washington

Above: Picture of George Washington, first President of America

However things began to look up for America after George Washington performed an almost overnight miracle by turning the continental army into professional fighting units. Nevertheless the odds were still greatly in favour of Britain.

American & British Force Movement

Above: Map showing the movement of American and British forces

The Americans had great faith in themselves. They were fighting for a cause. America had everything to lose for their very existence was at stake – their homes and hearths. The added advantage was that they were taking a stand on their own home turf. Feelings of patriotism were high – in fact this was the driving force that inspired America. Most of the army groups consisted of men who knew each other well – consisted of friends and neighbors. Hence they were well knit bands and not just paid mercenaries. All along they had defended their homes and had some rudimentary basic knowledge of the art of warfare. So among the Americans the moral was high. The British were over confident and over sure of themselves.

British at a Disadvantage

Above: British army attacking at a disadvantage position

The topography of the rugged North American terrain put the British at a disadvantage. To the latter it was unknown territory – rocky and rough. Winters were unbearably cold while summers in the south were boggy and humid. The muddy roads made it almost impenetrable to negotiate the forests and move westwards. A concerted attack could not be mounted because American settlements were vastly spaced out – sprawling and wide. Transporting men and supplies became a Herculean task. Last but not least point of disadvantage for the British was that their headquarter was flung far across the Atlantic which meant an all round strain on resources and mobility.

Map during the battle of Saratoga

Above: Maps showing American and British force movements during the Battle of Saratoga

The Battle of Saratoga was the culmination point after a number of small skirmishes. Saratoga was near New York. The American victory persuaded the French to strike up an alliance in 1778. In 1779 Spain too joined. France and Spain had selfish interests in mind – they wanted to drive out the British from America. In fact even before officially joining the pact, Spain had been supplying ammunitions and supplies to the Americans.

The entry of these two countries opened up new fronts. Britain had to divert her forces to fight the new enemies. Netherlands also joined in the anti-British war in 1780. Consequently the pressure lessened on America.

British Army Opened Fire

Above: British army shooting American militia

However the war dragged on but it continued to be popular with the ordinary Americans – not only with the politicians and military personnel. Their feelings of patriotism never flagged. Some scholars opine that ultimately it was this lasting popular steady support that was the main reason for America never giving in to British pressure.

With the passage of time and the war dragging on support in England favoring the war began to wane. The Whigs in Parliament represented religious nonconformists, industrialists and reformists. They spoke up against the war as being unjust. This together with eight years of strain on the morale and exchequer began to tell on Britain. To crown it all there was not a single decisive victory to crow about. Britain’s fatigue was one of the main causes of bringing about an end to the war.

Lord Charles Cornwallis

Above: Picture of Lord Charles Cornwallis

Strengthened by support from France, Spain and the Netherlands, America continued to put up a steady stiff resistance to Britain. In 1781 America seized a large British encampment under Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. Till 1783 skirmishes continued but the British were tired of this no-win-no-lose situation. Britain sought for peace.

American Independence

Above: British accepting American’s demand for independence by signing the documents of the Treaty of Paris.

By the Peace of Paris in September 1783, Britain, USA, France and Spain put the official seal to the peace process in Paris. Huge tracts of land in the west were awarded to America and recognition to United States was given as a new independent country. In November 1783 the last British forces left New York.

THE AMERICAN-MEXICAN WAR – 1846-1848

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In America the idea took roots that she had the divine right to expand her borders from sea to sea – it was called ‘manifest destiny’. This notion caused suffering to Mexico and Native Americans.

Tension began to grow after Texas became a part of USA following the Texas War of Independence. Frontier disputes began to snowball into armed conflicts.

President Polk took these as an excuse to grab large regions from Mexico. America wanted to march towards the Pacific and in so doing she rode rough shod over her neighbors – British in Canada, the Mexicans and of course the Native Americans. Since taking over Louisiana in 1883 by President Jefferson, the Americans began to steadily march westwards in great numbers and on to lands not belonging to USA. When Polk became President the idea of ‘manifest destiny’ had taken roots. It was the duty of the Americans to civilize the world. The American Protestant Christians ignored the feelings of others – Native Americans and Catholic Mexicans – occupying the land. It was not always talk of violence because generous monetary offerings were made to buy off the original owners. In 1835 and 1845 $5 million was offered to buy off California from Mexico but the latter, quite understandably, refused to sell half its country to its most dangerous neighbor!

There was another underlying cause for the outbreak of hostilities. In the 1820′s and 30′s Mexico had gained independence from Spain but she needed workers. So a generous call was given to settlers to come provided they took the oath of allegiance to Mexico and also converted to Catholicism. Thousands, including slaves took up the offer and moved off. But soon they, the new ‘Texicans’ or ‘Texians’ were disillusioned with the manner in which the government was run. So they tried to take over the reins of the government. In 1835 Texas revolted and the Mexican President, Santa Anna, had no alternative but to agree to the Treaty of Velasco in 1836. Texas became independent. Many Mexicans questioned the legal validity of this step as Santa Anna was a captive during the signing of the treaty. Thus border skirmishes between Texas and Mexico continued. USA openly supported with the Texans who were USA-born. The brutal fighting developed in the Americans a feeling of superiority against the Mexicans. Texas formally joined USA on 4th July 1845.

Mexico did not take it lying down. Soon border conflicts became an important international matter. Texas or USA laid claim to the Rio Grande River border. Mexico wanted her frontier to stretch as far as the Nueces River. On 25th April 1846 war broke out.

This war between America and Mexico was traditional. Infantry, cavalry and artillery came into play using entrenched European tactics. American invasion was received by guerilla warfare but the latter could not make much impact.

USA took recourse to a three-pronged plan. Two army units marched south from Texas while a third unit moved west towards Santa Fe, New Mexico and thence onto California. In a series of battle the Mexican forces were humbled and the victorious Americans marched south causing untold misery to the local population. In mid August 1846 USA navy took control of Monterey and Los Angeles in California. In September 1846 a three-day battle ensued for the control of the north Mexican city of Monterey. The victory of America was followed by a truce.

During this lull former President Santa Anna returned to Mexico from exile and quickly went about forming a new army of 20.000 men. The Mexicans refused to give in although the losses in terms of men and land were heavy. It became clear to the Polk government that only a full-scale battle would bring them to their knees. Thus while continuing with attacks in the desert this time the aim of USA was to attack Mexico City. It would be at that point of time the greatest naval landing in history.

The grand plans were put into action. General Scott in March 1947 landed at Veracruz – Mexico’s most important eastern port. A bloody battle ensued from March to August while the Americans moved inwards toward Mexico. After five major battles on September 14th Scott entered the capital. Some feeble resistance was offered by the citizens but by mid October that too petered out. USA army took full control.

Subsequently Santa Anna resigned from the presidency but kept control of the army. He continued military warfare but his beaten troops refused to fight anymore. He was asked by his own government to resign from the army. Guerilla warfare continued but could not be effective. The Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo was concluded and ratified by both the countries. It annexed the northern parts of Mexico to USA for which the latter was to pay $15 million.

What stands out is the bravery of the individual Mexican. It is this that made the war to carry on for a long time causing headache to America. It was Mexican leadership that was lacking in standard. Superior cannon power and new tactics won the day for the Americans. The war made a hole in American finances – $100 million and it took the toll of nearly 14,000 military lives. Victory over a weak disorganized neighbor had come – but with a high terrible price. It definitely was not a cakewalk.

WAR OF THE PACIFIC – (1879-1884)

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Historical Map of the War of the Pacific 1879-1884

Above: Map showing borders of the involved countries before and after the War of the Pacific 1879-1884

Chile, Bolivia and Peru were involved in this war. It resulted in Chile’s annexation of rich disputed regions on the Pacific coast. The main cause was a tussle between Chile and Bolivia over a part of the Atacama Desert, containing sodium nitrate that lay between 23rd and26th parallels on the Pacific Coast of South America. Chile’s military superiority and discipline brought it success while failure was the lot of Bolivia and Peru.

The frontiers between the nations had always been rather ambiguous until the two countries settled for the 24th parallel as their boundary. This gave Chile the right to share the taxes levied on export products lying in Bolivian territory between the 23rd and 24th parallels. But Bolivia, in course of time became to resent this and became apprehensive about Chile seizing more parts of the coastal area.

Map of War of Pacific Campaigns 1879-1884

Above: Map showing the campaigns during the War of Pacific 1879-1884

Peru was the traditional enemy of Chile as regards control of the Pacific coastline. It also needs to be noted that Peru was prosperous largely because of its monopoly in fertilizers and the booming nitrate industry in its Tarapaca province. The latter was connected to the Bolivian mining operations along the coast.

Chilean Troops in Antofagasta

Above: Chilean troops formation in Plaza Colon, Antofagasta

In 1873 Peru and Bolivia came to a secret agreement guaranteeing their mutual territories and independence. In 1874 Chile and Bolivia came into a new agreement by which Chile gave up its portion of export taxes on minerals shipped from Bolivia and Bolivia agreed not to raise taxes on Chilean enterprises in Bolivia for another twenty-five years. But when Bolivia overlooked this and attempted to increase taxes of a Chilean nitrate company, Chile broke into protests. In reply Bolivia threatened to impound the property. Immediately Chilean forces marched into the port city of Antofagasta in February 1879. Bolivia now openly declared war and asked for the help of Peru. In April 1879 Chile declared war against both Peru and Bolivia.

Naval War during the War of the Pacific 1879-1884

Above: Naval War during the War of the Pacific 1879-1884

With ease Chile occupied the Bolivian coastal region of Antofagasta province and took the offensive against Peru, which was more powerful. Two naval victories at Iquique and Angamos in May and October 1879 respectively enabled Chile to be in control of the coastline of Peru. This was followed by the army invading Peru. USA tried but failed to mediate. Chile occupied the capital of Peru, Lima in October 1880. Peruvian resistance however continued for three more years supported by American encouragement.

On 20th October 1883 Peru and Chile sat at the table and signed the Treaty of Ancon by which the province of Tarapaca was given to Chile. Chile was also allowed to occupy the provinces of Tacna and Arica for a decade after which elections were to be held to determine its nationality. On this issue for many years the two countries failed to come to a point of understanding. It came to be known as the ‘Question of the Pacific’. Due to American mediation, in the end Chile was allowed to keep Arica but had to pay compensation to Peru to the tune of $6 million. Other concessions had to be made by Chile also.

Pacific War Tregedy

Above: A cover of a book entitled ‘Andean Tragedy‘ with an image depicting the bitterness and cruelty, that the Pacific War in 1879-1884 has brought

The war took a heavy toll of lives in Peru. Much property too was laid waste. Peru lost her best warships and her control of the ocean. Looting and pillage followed the Chilean occupation of Lima. Even the National Library was not spared.

The end of this war saw the outbreak of a civil war and the nation floundered for many decades onwards.

A truce in 1884 between Bolivia and Chile gave Chile control over the entire Bolivian coastline rich in nitrate, copper and other minerals. In 1904 this arrangement became permanent by a treaty. Chile on its part agreed to build a rail link connecting La Paz, the capital of Bolivia with the port of Arica and guaranteed freedom of commercial movement through the lands and ports of Chile. Bolivia tried repeatedly to get out of this landlocked prison through the La Plata river system towards the Atlantic. These efforts led to the Chaco War (1932-35) between Bolivia and Paraguay.

Below: Map of La Paz, Bolivia and her neighboring Countries (click map to enlarge)

Map of Lapaz