Tag Archives: France

Gaza Situation Getting Worse

Posted on by
Reply

gaza1The condition of the Palestinians has worsened recently as an aid agency of the United Nations suspended its operations following the death of two of its drivers.  

The Israeli forces are still fighting heavily with the Hamas militants.

The Red Cross has criticized Israel for causing  delay in the agency’s mission to help and save the casualties of the two-week old war. Reports stated that the death toll of the fightings has reached more than 700 and is still rising.

While the Palestinian civilians are finding ways to save themselves from the heavy attacks and offensives, there is still no clear sign that a ceasefire agreement will happen immediately.

The Israeli forces are determined to chase the militants, and so are the latter. In fact they declared lately that they are going to bring the war against Israel to every street and alley.

The UN, France, the United States, and Britain have now committed to work hand in hand for the immediate end to the 13-day old war that has wasted hundreds of human lives.

INDO-PAKISTANI WAR OF 1971

Posted on by
7

Map of Kashmir Region

Above: Map of Kashmir Region

It was a major war between India and Pakistan, which finally led to the Bangladesh Liberation War or the Pakistani Civil War. Exact dates are under dispute. The battle in western India from 3rd to 16th December 1971 is termed the Indo-Pakistani war by both India and Bangladesh. Within two weeks Pakistan suffered a humiliating defeat.

Picture of Sheik Mujibur Rahman

Above: Picture of Sheik Mujibur Rahman

LIBERARTION WAR OF BANGLADESH:
The Bangladesh Liberation War was the main cause behind the Indo-Pakistani conflict. The former was an outburst of the tensions between the dominant West Pakistanis and the majority of Bengalis in East Pakistan. Sparks began to fly with the victory of the Awami League in the 1970 elections in Pakistan. It won 167 of the 169 seats in East Pakistan thus securing a simple majority in the 313-seat Lower House of the Pakistani Parliament. Mujibur Rahman, the leader of the Awami League presented six points and claimed the right to form a government. The leader of Pakistan’s Peoples Party, Bhutto, refused to allow Mujibur Rahman to become the Prime Minister and President Yahya Khan summoned military action – the military largely consisting of men from West Pakistan.

Awami League in protest march

Above: Awami League protest march

Dissidents began to be arrested en masse and East Pakistani soldiers and police personnel began to be disbanded. There were strikes and non-cooperation movements and soon the military began to take action on Dhaka from the night of 25th March 1971. The Awami League was declared illegal and several members fled to exile. Mujib was arrested and taken to West Pakistan. On 27th March 1971, Ziaur Rahman, a Major in the Pakistani army rebelled and declared the independence of Pakistan on behalf of Mujibur. The exiled Awami League leaders formed a government in exile in April in Badyanathtola of Meherpur. The East Pakistan Rifles, an elite paramilitary forced, defected and extended support the new government. The Bangladesh Army took shape with the support of civilian guerillas.

Refugees fleed passing through dead brethren

Above: Refugees fleed, walking through dead brethren

LIBERATION WAR OF BANGLADESH – INDIA’S INVOLVEMENT:
Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, extended full support to Bangladesh on 27th March 1971. Bangladesh-India border came to be opened. Frightened citizens ran to India for shelter. The Indian provinces of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura opened border refugee camps. Exiled Bangladeshi officers and Indian volunteers immediately set about to recruit and train freedom fighters of the Mukti Bahini guerillas.
With the intensification of massacres on East Pakistan, an estimated 10 million refugees fled to India starting of a chain of economic and social instability in the host country. The USA, an old friend and ally, continued to materially help West Pakistan.

Picture of Indira Ghandi - The First Lady Prime Minister in India

Above: Picture of Indira Ghandi - First lady Prime Minister in India

In the middle of 1971 Indira Gandhi began diplomatic maneuvers by touring Europe. She was able to win over both UK and France to block USA in any pro Pakistani moves in the UN. Gandhi’s trump card was the signature of a 22-year treaty of friendship and cooperation with the Soviet Union. A stunned USA saw India given the assurance that China would not be involved in the conflict. So far China had been giving moral support to Pakistan but little in terms of military aid. China did not move her troops further into India.

Mukti Bahini - Freedom Fighters of India

Above: Formation of the freedom fighters Mukti Bahini

Meanwhile activities of the Mukti Bahini began to tell upon the Pakistani Army. But the swell of refugees rushing to India turned into a tide causing immense pressure. India became more involved by supplying weapons and training to the Mukti Bahini and began to take part in the shelling of East Pakistani targets.

Map of Pakistan and its border from India and Iran

Above: map of Pakistan and its border from India and Iran (click map to enlarge)

INDIA’S OFFICIAL ENGAGEMENT WITH PAKISTAN:
By November there was a huge build up of Indian forces on the border. War seemed imminent. India was just waiting for the rains to cease to allow for freer movement. Moreover snow and ice would close the mountain passes thus stalling Chinese intervention. On 23rd November Yahya Khan declared Emergency asking the people to be ready for war.

Submarine operation

Above: Picture of submarine in operation

Sunday 3rd December – in the evening Pakistan attacked eight air fields in northwest India. The inspiration behind this operation was Israeli success in the Arab-Israel Six Day War. The lesson gained was to strike without warning. But in this case the Indians were ready. The raid proved a failure. In a counter attack the Indians proved their superiority. In the east India joined hands with the Mukti Bahini to form the Mitro Bahini (Allied Forces) and an impressive air, sea and land attack was made on East Pakistan.

Massacre under Yahya Khan’s reign

Above: Massacre during the reign of Yahya Khan

Yahya Khan swiftly tried to capture territory in the western zone so as to be in a bargaining position in the east. For Pakistan’s very existence as a united country the operation in the western zone was of vital importance. India however made rapid gains in the west by capturing 5,500 square miles of Pakistani territory. As a gesture of goodwill, by the Simla Agreement of 1972 India returned to Pakistan the regions she had gained in Pak occupied Kashmir and Pakistan-Punjab. India’s involvement in the Bangladesh war of liberation gave the deathblow to Pakistan’s existence in the eastern region.

“The Indian Army merely provided the coup de grace to what the people of Bangladesh had commenced–active resistance to the Pakistani Government and its Armed Forces on their soil.”

Indian Air Force assault in Pakistan

Above: Indian Air Force assault in Pakistan

The Indian Navy proved its superiority in the ocean by successfully carrying out Operation Trident – which was an assault on the Pakistani seaport of Karachi. Two of Pakistan’s Destroyers and one Minesweeper were destroyed in Operation Python. The Indian Navy made its presence felt in the Bay of Bengal also. The Indian Air Force conducted 4,000 sorties in the west but its counterpart in Pakistan could hardly retaliate. This was because hitherto the technical personnel had mainly been Bengalis. Another reason for defeat was that the PAF, riddled with losses because of its eastern operations was in no position to further worsen matters. In the east the small air contingent of PAF no 14 squadron was easily destroyed giving Indian Air Force undisputed mastery of the air space. Within only a fortnight Pakistan was brought to its knees. The Pakistani forces surrendered on 16th December. On 17th December India announced a unilateral cease-fire to which Pakistan agreed.

Picture of President Richard Nixon

Above: Picture of US former President Richard Nixon

INVOLVEMENT OF AMERICA AND SOVIET UNION:
Pakistan was supported politically and materially by USA. Nixon, backed by Kissinger was afraid of Soviet plans towards the south and southeast. Pakistan was close to China, with whom USA was looking for a rapprochement. A visit was scheduled for February 1972. Nixon reasoned that Indian victory over West Pakistan would lead to total influence of Soviet Union. It would seriously harm the global image of America as well as its new ally – China. In order to prove its credentials to China, Nixon directly violated the US congress imposed bans on Pakistan and sent military support via Jordan and Iran. Parallel to this action China was encouraged to supply arms to Pakistan. The Nixon administration turned a blind eye to reports about genocide in East Pakistan and even ignored the ‘blood telegram.’

US 7th fleet Aircraft Carrier heading to the Bay of Bengal

Above: US 7th fleet Aircraft Carrier heading to the Bay of Bengal

When no doubt remained about Pakistan’s defeat Nixon sent a naval ship, USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal on 11th December 1971. It was interpreted by India to be a nuclear threat. On 6th and 13th December, the Soviet Union dispatched from Vladivostok, two groups of ships containing nuclear arms as well as a submarine. From 18th December to 7th January 1972 the Soviet ships trailed the US task force.

Troops and refugees movement map

Above: Map of Bangladesh with troop and refugee route movements (click map to enlarge

Bangladesh had won the sympathies of the Soviet Union. The Communist country gave support to the Indian Army as well as to the Mukti Bahini. Soviet Union had reasoned that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken both USA and China. Therefore India was assured of Soviet Union’s support in the Indo-Soviet friendship treaty of August 1971.

Soldiers and Civilian brutally murdered during the war

Above: Soldier and Civilian brutally murdered during the war

RESULTS:
The immediate result was the surrender of Pakistan to the Mitro Bahini – joint forces of Bangladesh and India. Secondly Bangladesh was born as an independent nation – being the third largest Muslim country in the world. Pakistan’s military became demoralized and Yahya Khan had to resign. Bhutto replaced him. Released from West Pakistani prison, Mijibur Rahman returned to Dhaka on 10th January 1972. Approximately one to three millon people were killed during the war. Some however put the toll lower at 300,000.
Faced with imminent and sure defeat, on 14th December the Pakistani army together with local cohorts killed Bengali doctors, teachers and other intellectuals as part of their programme against Hindu minorities. The latter made up the majority of urban educated elite. Young men, seen as potential rebels, especially students were also targeted.

Picture of Indian Soldiers in prison

Above: Picture of Indian Soldiers in prison

A Pakistani stamp was issued showing 90,000 prisoners of war in Indian camps to of globalize the issue. Pakistan had to pay a heavy price in terms of man and money power. Tariq Ali in ‘Can Pakistan Survive/’ says that the country lost half its navy, quarter of its air force and a third of its army. India took about 93,000 prisoners of war including Pakistani soldiers and East Pakistani quislings. Some were family members of the military or Bihari razarkars. Of these 79,676 were uniformed – the break up being as follows:

1. Army – 55,692
2. Paramilitary – 16,354
3. Police – 5,296
4. Navy – 1,000
5. Air Force – 800

Below: Stamp imprinted with an image of prisoners

Stamp imprinted with prisoners image

Since the last World War this was the largest surrender. Initially India wanted to try them for war crimes and brutality in East Pakistan but ultimately they were released as a goodwill gesture. As part of the hand-shaking mood and desire for lasting peace, in the Simla Agreement about 13000 square kilometers of territory was returned to Pakistan.

IMPORTANT DATES:
• March 7, 1971: Declaration by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman that, “The current struggle is a struggle for independence”, in a public meeting attended by almost a million people in Dhaka.
• March 25, 1971: Start of Operation Searchlight to eliminate any resistance. In Dhaka thousands are killed in student dormitories and police barracks
• March 26, 1971: Major Ziaur Rahman declares independence over the radio from Chittagong. Indian radio stations relay the message globally.
• April 17, 1971: Provisional government formed by exiled Awami League leaders
• December 3, 1971: West Pakistan launches a series of preemptive air strikes on Indian airfields. Officially the war between the two countries begins.
• December 14, 1971: Pakistan army starts systematic extinction of intellectuals and quislings.
• December 16, 1971: Lieutenant-General A. A. K. Niazi, supreme commander of Pakistani Army in East Pakistan, surrenders to the Allied Forces (Mitro Bahini) represented by Lieutenant General Aurora of Indian Army. Bangladesh gains independence.

THE WAR OF 1812 BETWEEN USA AND BRITAIN

Posted on by
Reply

Map of Mexico

Above: Map of Mexico (click map to enlarge)

The war on land and sea stretched from 1812 to 1815 along the border with Canada near the Chesapeake Bay region and also along the Mexican Gulf. It ended with a peace treaty being signed in Europe.

The Great Lakes

Above: Map showing the location of Great Lakes

The American Revolutionary War of 1783 was over but Britain did not withdraw her forces from the Great Lakes. This was a bone of contention. Neither was Britain willing to sign commercial treaties in favour of America.

America watched with hostile interest the French Revolutionary Wars of 1792-1802 and the Napoleonic Wars of 1803-1815 wherein the main opponents were Britain and France. After the wars France became a major land power while Britain ruled the seas.

American Sailors

Above: British Officials look over American merchantmen crew

Commercially the two now locked horns. Britain tried to block the continent while France checked the sale of British goods in her colonies. The maritime skirmishes and policies of the two during the 1790′s produced conflict with America. The latter said that all had a right to the seas and France and Britain were violating its neutrality. American finger mainly pointed at Britain because she ruled the waves. To add insult to injury Britain made it her right to take from American merchant vessels any British sailors employed under them. It so happened that many Americans were also taken. This led to major trouble.

President Thomas Jefferson

Above: Picture of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of United States

Initially USA used economic weapons to force the Europeans to change their policies. President Jefferson enforced the Embargo Act, which banned all American ships from foreign trade. It had an adverse effect. Britain and France remained adamant but the shipping of New England was practically ruined. Other weak unplanned economic steps also met with failure.

President James Madison

Above: Picture of US fourth President, James Madison

With America facing economic depression there seemed to be no other option but declaration of war. Public feeling was strongly for it. ‘War Hawks’ elected in the Congress in 1810 became loud in this war cry. These men were mostly from the west and south and were Democrats as well as Republicans. Their argument was that to save the honor of America and force a change in British policies – Canada should be invaded. However, the Federalists who represented the shippers of New England opposed the war anticipating that it would further ruin their trade. Meanwhile things were coming to a head in 1810 between Britain and France under Napoleon. On June 12th 1812 President Madison, in the teeth of a considerable amount of opposition, declared war.

Lake Champlain Map

Above: Antique map during the war at Lake Champlain (click map to enlarge)

Unprepared USA forces failed to conquer Canada in the battles of 1812 and 1813. The three-pronged attacks towards Montreal, Niagara frontier and Upper Canada lacked coordination. In the west General Hull surrendered at Detroit in August 1812. The forces along Lake Champlain had to withdraw without facing the enemy. On the waters America won some single-ship encounters with British frigates and privateers continued to harass British ships. However Britain slowly but surely tightened a blockade of America’s coast. It was disaster for American trade. The entire coast became exposed to the British.

Battle of the Thames

Above: depiction of war during the Battle of the Thames

The 1813 efforts to invade Canada also proved to be abortive. At Niagara there was some sort of a stand but Montreal could not be taken. The solitary success was in the west where the Americans took control of Detroit region forcing the British to retreat eastwards. Here at the Battle of the Thames the British were defeated. Techumseh, a great Red Indian Chief who had been fighting with the British also met his end here.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Above: A portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte

1814 saw the total defeat of America because after humiliating Napoleon, Britain turned her full energy on USA. The plan was to attack New York along Lake Champlain to cut off New England, to attack New Orleans to block the Mississippi and to go to Chesapeake Bay to divert attention. Britain hoped that in this way she would be able to force major territorial concessions.

For USA the situation was very serious because she had become practically insolvent by the autumn of 1814. Things had gone so bad that the New Englanders were thinking of breaking away from the Union. The Hartford Convention at Connecticut in December 1814 however put an end to such extreme talks. But a number of constitutional amendments were put in with the objective of putting a check to federal powers.

Map location of Chesapeake Bay

Above: A map showing the location of Chesapeake Bay (click map to enlarge)

The British came within inches of success when American resistance at Chesapeake Bay proved to be so weak that British troops marched up to Washington DC and set fire to most of the public buildings. President Madison was forced to run away. The British next turned their attention to Baltimore but here the resistance was stronger. They had to retreat. This success of USA inspired Francis Scott to compose the ‘Star Spangled Banner.’

Naval War in USA-Britain War 1812

Above: battle of USA and Britain warship at Lake Champlain

In the north seasoned British troops marched from Montreal towards New York. Only a weak American force stood in the way. But on September 11th 1814 America under McDonough won the naval battle of Lake Champlain and destroyed a British fleet. Hastily Britain apprehensive of her communication lines withdrew back into Canada.

President James

Above: Picture of the seventh President, James Jackson

In 1814 New Orleans citizens consisted of French, Spanish, African, Anglo and Creoles who were interested only in economic progress and the joys of life. The place occupied a strategic position. It was a tempting prize for the British still basking in their memory of having set fire to Washington DC and packing off her President on the run. A naval flotilla of 50 ships carrying 10,000 experienced troops sailed from Jamaica led by Sir Peckham. On the American side ‘Old Hickory’ or General Jackson arrived in the late autumn of 1814 and immediately set about to strengthen the defenses of the city.

The American Fleet 1812

Above: British fleet attacking in the Gulf of Mexico

The British navy successfully took on an American fleet near the Gulf of Mexico. Two British officers disguised as Spanish fishermen found out a canal that was unguarded. It flowed into the east bank of the Mississippi River hardly nine miles from New Orleans. On 23rd December the British ships poled their way through the maze of muddy streams and marshes unchallenged. Fortunately two Americans whose plantations had been taken over by the British, forewarned the Americans. A swift nighttime attack was launched which took the British by surprise. Startled at the boldness of their opponents the British abandoned this route of attack and retreated.

The Chalmette Plantation 1812

Above: The Chalmette Plantation 1812

Meanwhile Old Hickory retreated to the Chalmette Plantation of the banks of a canal. A broad dry ditch marked the narrowest strip of firm land between the British positions and the city of New Orleans. Here he built a solid mud rampart, which was 3/5 miles long. On one side was the great river and on the left were impenetrable swamps.

On 28th December Jackson stood off a strong British advance with the help of an American ship that blasted the British left flank. Jackson’s gunners also stood their ground against an artillery barrage by the British.

Andrew Jackson’s Command

Above: Andrew Jackson commanding American troops in war

The arrival of fresh troops during early January 1815 spelt hope for the British. The latter planned to overwhelm Jackson’s slim line of defense in the early hours of a foggy dawn, along the bank of the river opposite the canal. It was a well chalked out plan involving heavy assault columns carrying fascines or bundled sticks used to construct fortifications as well as ladders to jump over the ditch and scale the walls. The plan failed to live up to expectations. The British were delayed and without the fog they were exposed on the open fields. Moreover they had forgotten to carry their ladders and fascines. The Americans were ready for them behind their mud and cotton bale barricades. Jackson’s force consisted of many colours – there was the regular army units together with fancy New Orleans citizens and former slaves fighting as free men. Armed farmers who had once been dismissed as bandits stood side by side with Jackson’s regular army. 4000 odd group of soldiers faced an enemy double their number squeezed inside a narrow makeshift fort!

Chalmette Plantation and Cemetery

Above: Final resting place of many soldiers who fought and died in the USA-Britain war of 1812 (Chalmette, Louisiana)

The fate of the British was sealed right from the start. They were sitting targets marching across open ground for nearly quarter of a mile. Veterans who had fought in Spain fell like ninepins together with the proud Scots. Two generals were shot to death and the Commander suffered two wounds before dying. His next in command wisely did not carry out his dying commands and decided to immediately withdraw. More than 2000 British had been killed and several hundreds were captured. The Americans lost 8 men and only 13 were wounded.

Treaty of Ghent

Above: Image during the signing of documents of the Treaty of Ghent

Jackson’s men saved New Orleans but by that time the war was over. The Treaty of Ghent ended the war of 1812 but the points of discord were sorted out weeks later in Europe.

War of the Oranges

Posted on by
Reply

Map of Piedmont, Italy

Above: Map of Piedmont, Italy – battleground during France and Spain conflict

In 1801 a conflict broke out between France and Spain on one side with Portugal on the other. History came to term it as the War of the Oranges

Napoleon Bonaparte’s Portrait

Above: Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte

France under Napoleon Bonaparte, together with Spain, demanded Portugal to enter into an alliance with France. Since the time of the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1373, Portugal had remained an ally of Britain.

French Troops led by Napoleon Bonaparte

Above: Thousands of French troops led by Napoleon Bonaparte marching for war

But now Napoleon, nursing imperialistic ambitions of expansion, sent an ultimatum to Portugal asking her to surrender major chunks of her country. Portugal refused. This was the pretext Napoleon was looking for and French troops arrived in Portugal in April 1801. On 20th May Spanish reinforcements arrived under the command of Godoy.0

Manuel Godoy

Above: Painting of Manuel Godoy

The result of the battle was a foregone conclusion. Portugal lost and the aggressors took over the town of Olivenza, situated near the Spanish border. It so happened that Godoy plucked oranges at neary Elvas and sent them to the Queen of Portugal with the message that he would be soon proceeding to Lisbon. Hence the battle came to be termed as the War of Oranges.

Map of Olivenza, Spain

Above: Map of Olivenza, Spain

After the humiliation at Olivenza, Portugal negotiated for a treaty with France and Spain – Peace of Badajoz. Portugal was to close its ports to British ships, pay France a huge indemnity and accept the Guiana borders as far as the delta of the River Arawani as French territory. Spain was to get Olivenca in perpetuity. It was further laid down that any breach of the terms would lead to instant cancellation of the treaty.

The Battle of Trafalfgar

Above: Naval war during the Battle of Trafalgar

The Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 turned the tide. With the defeat of Napoleon, Portugal once more turned to Britain, her old ally. This provoked France to cancel the Peace of Badajoz and march on to Portugal leading to the Peninsular War from 1897 to 1810.

Below: Attack plan during the Battle of Trafalgar (click map to enlarge)

Map during the Battle of Trafalgar